Coming to Terms Essay

In â€Å"A Look at the Intersection of Fine Dining and Fast Food†, Brenda Falk discusses the differences and similarities in fast food and fine dining. Her main focus throughout the article is the new found overlap in these two dining techniques. She also seems to feel that soon these two dining techniques could easily become one known as â€Å"quick casual†. In this article she jumps around from point to point whether it be reasoning behind certain dining styles, types of changes in these styles, or how they affect each other. Her argument was based fully on fast food restaurants adopting ideas from fine dining restaurants . Falk inserts an inordinate amount of her own feelings on the topic and doesn’t analyze the subject as well as she should have. She focuses mainly on the fast food business while lacking in her analysis of fine dining. She also should have made the paper more about what caused the changes in the restaurant business instead of the changes themselves. In the essay Falk has many examples of foods and restaurants that have changed and became noticed for their modern style, such as Panera Bread and Chipotle. She appeals to a large audience by adding examples many people can relate too. On the other hand, her article is extremely biased in multiple ways. She makes too many generalizations that may not particularly be true in some cases. For example she states, â€Å" the fact that people today hate to make choices, preferring to have the best of both worlds†¦ † (Falk,33). This may not be exactly true for everyone. She uses the previous quote to support her argument in saying that since people are so indecisive quick casual would be a good alternative. Another instance is when she states, â€Å"There are significantly more calories at table service restaurants† (Falk, 35). The prior quote shows her bias towards dine-in restaurants because she only uses negative examples of fine dining. Furthermore, her essay is very restricted. She aims her essay towards adults and college students with her use of language and examples of certain restaurants; But a lot of her writing makes you think otherwise. The core of her essay is stating that quick casual is the new alternative to fine and fast food dining. Though she never takes into consideration the ideas of being a vegetarian or that college students have dining halls or even the fact that not all people eat out. She had good arguments but they did not affect the people they were meant to affect. One of her main argumentative statements is at the very end of her essay when she says, â€Å"The country is focused on problems with obesity and poor eating habits †¦.. until major changes are made, food prepared at home will almost always be healthier than food eaten away from home† (Falk,36) . These type of statements should have been more prominent in the essay, she only brings up this type of conflict in the last paragraph and nowhere else. By tying in the eating at home or the obesity aspect more, she would have had a strong argument. As mention earlier, if she touched on all the aspects possible that would have made her essay more relevant Some of her most outstanding focuses were â€Å"Trend Mapping† and the â€Å"Trickle Down Theory†. Trend mapping helps culinary experts predict which menu items will be popular in the future. The trickle down theory helps quick casual restaurants enhance their menu with more fine dining dishes. These ideas help customers make smart choices. I was impressed with her inclusion of these two innovations because they go right along with her topic and fit into the main idea . Even though her essay was poorly structured at some points, there were also some good points throughout. I feel that her style was very laid back and readable because she used places her target audience have been and can relate to, as examples. Brenda Falk creates this article with the objective of describing the many similarities between the food industry and that the in between â€Å"quick casual† style is the most convenient. She successfully describes these similarities and elaborates on the new innovative style but never fully creates a legitimate argument. If she discussed more on the topic of eating at home or the factor of money or even brought in some positives of fine dining, that could have created a stronger argument. She has a great sense of organization and style but needs to focus more on her analysis of the topic.

Integration of Aristotle’s Four Causes and Ego Psychology Essay

Ego Psychology Theory is based on Freud’s structure of mind model of identity, ego, and superego elaborated in more detail. Individuals have different ego controlling between primitive drives and realities. Individuals always deal with identities, drives and egos. However, if one has good control with ego, they can express their desire, drives and morals in realistic and socially appropriate ways. If failed, one confronts difficulties such as conflict with inner self and loss of mature interpersonal relationship. However, throughout lifetime, individuals change their feelings and behaviors to better fit their needs or minimize their conflict between primitive drives and realities. The material cause for ego psychology is identity and ego. Individuals are born with primitive drives, sexual desires, and egos which enable to organize their identity, drives and synthesize judgment, defined as decisions toward another in feelings, or to be aware of drives that affects feelings in accord with reality. In other words, ego can give a right direction for or control identity drives, whether it is satisfied or not in light of reality. The formal cause of ego psychology is ego development which is follows by means of the individual’s needs, e. g. , affiliation with others, learning, etc. Hartmann says that we must develop â€Å"autonomous ego-development† (Hartmann, 1958, p, 101). The ego must be understood in relation with the individual’s needs and drives, traits, expectations, and values. According to Hartmann, people’s defense mechanism develop their ego. Hartmann pointed out that â€Å"the defense processes may simultaneously serve both the control of instinctual drive and adaptation to the external world. † (Hartmann, 1958, p. 51) The efficient cause is adaptation – â€Å"reality mastering† and a reciprocated relationship between an individual and his or her environment. The outcome of successful adaptation implies â€Å"fitting together† (Hartmann 1958, p, 36). If individuals overcome their conflicts, they are lead to their functions which are more or less closely related to the perceive reality. Therefore, successful adaptation embeds an individual in an environment. Also, it solves conflict among individual needs, capacities, and their environments due to the complicated tendencies of defensive egos. In early stages the ego is focused on differentiating itself from others and on affirming its separate existence though expression of drives. Later, the individuals begin to learn rules of conduct to follow in order to avoid group criticism (Martin,1981). The impact of interpersonal and environmental factors is thought to be crucial to the evolution of mature ego functions during the lifelong developmental process. The final cause of ego psychology is to find better adaptation and sustain ego function with regard to individual needs to adapt to their environments, drives, traits, and expectations. Other manifestations of social functioning problems and self regulation and control of drives affect other people’s perceptions is central to the development of an individual’s behaviors and are appropriate in certain circumstances. People, because of their inevitable and requisite relationship with the world, are subject to change their attitudes, behaviors, and even their egos in order to cope with the changes and demands of other people around them and in the group they belong in. References Irving M. Rosen. (1968) Ego psychology of the adult years.Journal of Religion and Health, Volume 7, Number 3 PDF (243. 6 KB) Retrieved May 2, 2008, from SpringerLink database. Hartmann, Heinz. (1958) Ego psychology and the problem of adaptation. New York, NY: International Universities Press. Martin A, James. (2000) Ego psychology notes. Retrieved Apr. 2, 2008, from http://www. brynmawr. edu/Acads/GSSW/jam/switr/991415. htm Martin, Grotjahn. (1981) The therapeutic group process in the light of developmental ego Psychology. Group, Volume 5. Retrieved May 2, 2008, from SpringerLink database.

Diffusion and Osmosis

The Effects of Osmosis and Diffusion The experimentation of last week’s lab was in order to test the many effects of diffusion and osmosis amongst four experiments. One such experiment was testing the effects of molecular weight on diffusion in relation to the use of Agar. The methods performed included the use of two acids, HCl and acetic acid. Both acids were placed into an Agar-filled dish and, over increments of 15 minutes, data collection was taken based off the diffusion rate and the diameter length of both the HCl and the Acetic Acid.The resulting factor was the HCl exhibited a greater rate of diffusion, directly resulting in a lager diameter. This implies that the HCl ultimately has a smaller molecular weight. The next experiment was based off osmosis of an animal cell; a chicken egg. After submerging two different chicken eggs in distilled water and 10% salt water, once again intervals of 15 minute data collection was taken for a total of one hour. After each interval the weight in grams was taken and then the eggs were placed back into the solution for further analysis.Ultimately, the egg in distilled water exhibited an increase in weight while the egg in salt water was the opposite; a decrease in weight. This conclusion proves that water diffusion occurs from a hypotonic solution to a hypertonic solution. Osmosis in a plant cell was tested by comparing an Elodea cell in pond, distilled, and salt water. After obtaining samples of the Elodea cell and preparing a wet mount of each leaf using all three types of water, observations of the cells in a compound microscope was the next step.From there, comparisons of all three types of solutions in order to determine the apparent differences in osmosis were needed. When examined, the cell in pond water was not as defined; this result implied that water left the hypotonic cytoplasm of the cells causing it to wither in a way. Introduction In order to conduct the experiments of this lab, a hypothesis is n o doubt necessary. In reference to the effects of molecular weight on diffusion a person is lead to believe that since the atomic mass unit of Acetic Acid is greater than that of HCl, the rate of diffusion of Acetic Acid will be slower and therefore produce a smaller diameter.As stated by Watson (2011), â€Å"larger molecules diffuse more slowly because of resistance from molecules of the medium. † This â€Å"medium† is the means of passing through the spaces in between a molecule. This was as well stated by (Watson 2011). Reiterating what was described, unlike smaller molecules, which can fit through a medium more easily, in turn allowing for a faster and more sufficient means of diffusion, a larger molecule has the resistance from a specific medium, which in a way is pulling back molecules therefore causing a prolonged time of diffusion.This resistance is a direct correlation and explanation as to why the diffusion rate of a relatively larger molecule exhibits a long er rate of diffusion, as with the comparison of hydrochloric acid and acetic acid, and ultimately the purpose of this experiment. Based on the background information acquired on osmosis of an animal cell, it is safe to assume that after each interval of fifteen minutes, the weight of the animal cell in distilled water will continually grow, while the egg in salt water will decrease in weight.Derived from information provided by (Fisher, Williams, & Lineback 2011), an animal cell, which is hypertonic, placed into a hypotonic solution of distilled water will cause water to diffuse into the hypertonic cell, seeing as diffusion occurs from hypotonic to a hypertonic solution. With any type of diffusion process, the particles that are being diffused tend to travel from a concentration that is greater to one that is smaller; moving down in the concentration gradient. This is the direct result of the increase in weight of the animal cell in the experiment.In relation to a chicken egg, the l argest living cell, it is predicted that the containing molecules will be too large to pass the membrane and water will flow into the egg (Reece 2011). The matter of the animal egg being placed into a solution of 10% salt is the directly opposite of the above stated. Osmosis within a plant cell placed in pond water will show a wilted cell wall based on the continual impeding force of the water on the wall. Aquatic plants tend to be hypertonic in their natural environment causing the plant to exhibit a â€Å"swollen† or turgid structure.Materials and Methods In order to accurately and sufficiently test the hypothesis of the effects of molecular weight on diffusion, agar was one substance that was used. Agar in the presence of acids turns from a yellowish color to a more violet color. This same dish contained to holes with which two acids could be placed-HCl and acetic acid. From basic chemistry knowledge one knows that the molecular weight of HCl in comparison to Acetic Acid i s smaller in size; that information was given from Watson (2011).This is significant because it will later give way to the rate of diffusion of the two different acids. Constant observations, recordings, and measurements were required for this experiment, only in the intervals of 15 minutes. Over a period of one hour it was noticeable that the HCl exhibited a greater rate of diffusion and a great length in diameter, in comparison to acetic acid. The most important factor when dealing with this diffusion experiment, was the methods taken to prove that HCl had a greater rate of diffusion than acetic acid.Initially, soaking a chicken egg in a small solution of acetic acid and 2 parts tap water will allow for better experimentation of the rate of osmosis of an animal cell. The overall scope of this particular experiment was to weigh two eggs using a triple beam balance in order to get an initial weight of the eggs before beginning the process of the lab. After doing so, the eggs were pl aced into two solutions, one being distilled water and the other 10% salt. Proceeding these steps were the 15 minute intervals of time, and after, a recording of the weight of the egg.This process was done until a total of 60 minutes was reached for both the distilled water solution and the 10% salt solution. After acquiring all results and data, a conclusion could be based. Once acquiring three samples of Elodea leaves, preparing three different wet mounts was the following step. From there, after ten minutes an observation of all the samples under a compound microscope was the following method needed in order to determine the characteristics of the leaves. The leaf in the pond water demonstrated the leaf cell in â€Å"normal† conditions, while the distilled water and NaCl were not â€Å"normal† conditions.Results The findings of the effects of molecular weight diffusion conclude that ultimately the molecular weight of a molecule affects the rate of diffusion directly . The greater the weight, the slower the diffusion process will be; that was the case for acetic acid, and it was in part due to the diffusion of particles through the medium. In addition to that, the measurement of the diameter of both acids also was directly affected by the molecular rate. All the comparisons in the diameter readings of the two acids can be found in table 2.All readings for both acids were taken over an increment of 15 minutes for an hour. In total, HCl produced a larger diameter due to its smaller amu. See table 2. In comparing the affects of distilled water to 10% salt water and the rate of osmosis of an animal cell, the rate of osmosis proved most sufficient in distilled water, rather than in the salt water, with an apparent increasing weight distribution in the distilled water, and a decrease in weight in the salt water. These changes in weight loss and gain are exhibited in Table 1.Even though it is obvious that both eggs exhibited either weight loss or gain, both eggs also showed a sudden spike it the gain or loss around the time frame of 15 minutes and 45 minutes, yet again illustrated in Table 1. Discussion After conducting the diffusion experiment using agar and examining the results, it is apparent what the outcome of diffusion is when comparing HCl and acetic acid atomic weights. It is as well safe to assume the resulting outcomes of future comparisons of two molecules of with different atomic mass units.The use of agar in this specific experiment is much useful due to the properties and characteristics of the extract. The agar, in the presence of an acid, turns from a yellowish color to one that is pink; because of this characteristic, it was possible to measure the distance from the center outward of the agar when placed into a dish of HCl and acetic acid (Watson 2011). As explained before, these measurements allowed for sufficient data in determining the rate off diffusion for both acids. Table 2 will provide a visual for the d ata that was collected from the experiment.In the end, a conclusion was established that the rate of diffusion was most prominent in HCl, the acid with the smallest amu. Simply the definition of diffusion itself will aid in understanding why molecules of a higher molecular weight will diffuse slower in comparison to one of a smaller weight. Any substance will diffuse down its concentration gradient, the region along which the density of a chemical substance decreases (Reece 2011). It is understood that the molecular weight is how much mass a substance has, and mass can be determined by how tightly packed particles are-density.A molecule with a high mass, ultimately a high density, will illustrate a slower rate of diffusion. With regards to the cell that is the egg, the rate of osmosis proved to be greater in the distilled water as compared to that of the 10% salt. This is in part due to the size of the particles that make up the egg as well as surround the egg. If there is a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solutes in the surrounding solution, then water will tend to leave the cell (Reece 2011). This definition provides an understanding of what is happening to the egg when it is submerged into the 10% salt solution.Comparing the egg to the salt solution, there is a higher concentration of nonpenetrating solute in the salt solution, nonpenetrating being the particles that cannot cross the membrane, and this in return allows water to leave the egg which ultimately causes dehydration for the egg, resulting in weight loss recorded in Table 1. The complete opposite is the case for the distilled water which would result in weight gain for the egg. Literature Cited Fisher, K. , Williams, K. , & Lineback, J. (2011). Osmosis and diffusion conceptual assessment. CBE Life Sciences Education, 10(4), 418-429. doi: 10. 187/cbe. 11-04-0038 Reece, J. B. 2011. Campbell Biology. 9th ed. San Francisco (CA): Pearson Education Inc. 125-139 p. Watson, C. M. (2011). Diffusion and osmosis. In Biology 1441 Laboratory: Cellular and Molecular Biology (pp. 76-91). Boston: Pearson Learning Solutions. Tables and Figures Figure 1 percentage change in wait of eggs between 15 minute intervals [pic] |Weight of Egg (grams) | |Time Water 10% Salt | |0 75. 60 91. 65 | |15 76. 00 91. 46 | |30 76. 10 91. 39 | |45 76. 10 91. 5 | |60 76. 10 91. 23 | Table 1 A comparison in weight and change of each egg in DI water and a 10% salt solution. |Start time |HCl |Acetic Acid | | |15 min |16 mm |16 mm | | |30 min |18 mm |19 mm | | |45 min |23 mm |22mm | | Table 2 ———————– 60 min26mm23 mm Diffusion and Osmosis Kristen Demaline Bio 1113, Lab 3: Diffusion and Osmosis Osmolarity of Plant Cells In this class, we learned about hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions. Hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of solutes outside of the membrane, hypotonic solutions have a lower concentration of solutes outside the membrane, and isotonic solutions have an equal amount of solutes inside and outside of the membrane (Morgan & Carter, 66). When the solute concentration is not equal, the water concentration is not equal, so water will move from a higher concentration to a lower concentration in a process called osmosis.In this experiment, we cut 4 pieces of potato, weighed them, and let each soak in a different sucrose solution for about an hour and a half. Our solutions consisted of distilled water (. 0 sucrose molarity), . 1 sucrose molarity, . 3 sucrose molarity, and . 6 sucrose molarity. Our question was â€Å"which solutions are hypertonic, which are hypotonic, and which are isotonic ? †. This can all be determined through weight change. We hypothesized that distilled water would be a hypotonic solution, the . 1M would be a hypotonic solution, the . 3M would be an isotonic solution, and the . 6M would be a hypertonic solution. We thought that . M would be the isotonic solution because its molarity is in the middle. If . 3M is in fact an isotonic solution, then the water concentration is the same inside and outside of the membrane and there should be no water movement resulting in no weight change. If distilled water and . 1M are hypotonic solutions, then the concentration of water is higher on the outside, so water will move into the potato where water concentration is lower, causing a weight gain. Finally if . 6M is hypertonic, then water concentration is lower on the outside, so water will move from the inside of the potato to the solution, causing the potato to lose weight.After about an hour and a half we took the potato pieces out of the solutions the y were soaking in, patted the water off of them, and weighed them for a second time. The initial weight and final weight was recorded, which can be seen in Table 1. The potato piece that was soaking in the distilled water had a 3. 1% weight gain, and the potato piece that was soaking in . 1M sucrose had a 2. 1% weight gain. The potato piece had no weight change in the . 3M sucrose solution. And the potato piece that was soaking in . 6M sucrose solution had a 5. 7% weight loss.The weight changes can be easily seen in Graph 1. Table 1: Change in Weight |Sucrose Molarity: |0M |0. 1M |0. 3M |0. 6M | |final weight (g) |16. 4 |14. 7 |17. 7 |13. 2 | |initial weight (g) |15. 9 |14. 4 |17. 7 |14 | |weight change (g) |0. 5 |0. 3 |0 |0. 8 | |%change in weight |3. 10% |2. 0% |0% |5. 70% | Graph 1: [pic] As you can see, the results supported our hypothesis. Distilled water is a hypotonic solution, which makes sense because there is no concentration of solute in it. The water moved to the potato because the potato has more sucrose concentration, meaning a lower water concentration. The potato that was soaking in . 1M sucrose solution also gained weight as an effect of having a lower water concentration inside, but its weight gain percentage was lower because the solution had more solute than the distilled water. The potato soaking in . M sucrose solution had no change because the concentration of sucrose was the same in the potato as it was in the solution, as we predicted. The potato lost weight in the . 6M sucrose solution because the amount of sucrose inside the potato was less than the solution causing water movement from the potato to the solution. These results clearly demonstrate the process of osmosis. The water moved from a region where concentration is higher to a region where concentration is lower in every case, just like it would in a cell. Of course there is always a possibility of human error in weighing, labeling, and so on.One mistake our group made was tha t we forgot to look at the time when we put the potatoes in the solution, so we took them out a couple minute after the group next to us took theirs out, since we started at about the same time. When our results were compared to the results of other groups, they still seemed to match up. Repeating the experiment multiple times would give even clearer results. Diffusion of Starch, Salt, and Glucose Diffusion is when molecules move from an area where they are high in concentration to an area where they are low in concentration (Morgan & Carter, 66).In this experiment, we tested the ability of certain substances to pass through a semi-permeable membrane in the process of diffusion. Our semi-permeable membrane was dialysis tubing that was presoaked in water. We tied one end of the tubing with string, filled it with a solution that contained starch, salt, and glucose, and then we tied the other end. We weighed it, so we could later weigh it to discover if there was any weight change. We then placed the dialysis tubing into a beaker of distilled water.Our question was â€Å"which of these substances would be able to pass through the dialysis tubing, or semi-permeable membrane? †. After we let the tubing soak for 30 minutes, we could test for the presence of starch, salt, and glucose using 3 tests (iodine test for starch, silver nitrate test for salt, and Benedict’s reagent for glucose). Our hypothesis was that we would find the presence of all three substances in the distilled water. We thought this because we knew that molecules naturally diffuse when surrounded with an area with less concentration, but we didn’t know how much the semi-permeable membrane would interfere.Our other hypothesis was that water would enter the tubing as substances escaped it. We thought that due to osmosis, the water would move from the area of higher concentration (outside the tubing) to the area of lower concentration (inside the tubing). If our hypothesis was corr ect and all substances made it through the membrane, then we would expect to see the tubing gain weight and the original distilled water test positive for each substance, using our 3 tests, after the 30 minutes.To carry out the tests we had a positive control for each substance. The positive controls allowed us to see the results of the tests when we knew the solution contained the substances being tested for. We filled 3 test tubes with the starch/salt/glucose solution (positive controls) and 3 test tubes with the distilled water that the dialysis tubing had been soaking in. We put three drops of iodine in a positive control test tube, and three drops into a distilled water test tube to test for starch.Then we put five drops of silver nitrate into a positive control test tube, and five drops into a distilled water test tube to test for salt. Lastly, we put five drops of Benedict’s reagent into a positive control test tube, five drops into a distilled water test tube, and pla ced them both into boiling water to test for glucose. We recorded the color of each, which can be found in Table 2. We also weighed the tubing after it had soaked for 30 minutes and recorded it with the initial weight, which can be found in Graph 2. Table 2: Results of Diffusion Tests Test tube |Initial color |Final color | |starch pos control |cloudy, white |dark purple | |starch experiment |clear |yellow | |salt pos control |cloudy, white |cloudy, white | |salt experiment |clear |cloudy, white | |glucose pos control |cloudy, white |orange | |glucose experiment |clear |orange |Graph 2: [pic] If we look at Table 2 we see that we got the same color in the distilled water as we got in the positive control for the salt test and the glucose test, meaning that the distilled water tested positive for those substances. For the starch test, the positive control turned dark purple, but the distilled water turned yellow, meaning that it tested negative. If these results are correct, then star ch was unable to pass through the semi-permeable membrane. This made our hypothesis false, but not completely. We were still correct about the salt and the glucose making it throught the membrane.Our other hypothesis was correct. Graph 2 displays a weight gain showing that osmosis occured, like predicted. Just like with every experiment, there is room for human error. In this experiment, a mistake that could easily be made is with tying the ends of the tubing and making sure there is no leaks. That mistake could even go unnoticed leading to false results, because it makes it look like the substances made it through the membrane when in actuallity the substances accidently spilled into the distilled water. I think these experiments were successful in demonstrating diffusion and osmosis.The diffusion experiment clearly showed that substances move down a concentration gradient until concentration is equal everywhere, unless something is holding the substances back, like a membrane. The osmosis experiment showed that water always moves down its concentration gradient also. They both showed a search for balance, or equilibrium, on a level that is hard to see without investigation. References Morgan, J. G. and M. E. B. Carter. 2013. Energy Transfer and Development Lab Manual. Pearson Learning Solutions, Boston, MA.    |Points |Self-Assessment |Total Earned | |Introduction |2 |  2 |   | |Results |2 |  2 |   | |Figures/Tables |3 |  3 |   | |Discussion |3 |  3 |   | |Total |10 |  10 |   | Diffusion and Osmosis Kristen Demaline Bio 1113, Lab 3: Diffusion and Osmosis Osmolarity of Plant Cells In this class, we learned about hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions. Hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of solutes outside of the membrane, hypotonic solutions have a lower concentration of solutes outside the membrane, and isotonic solutions have an equal amount of solutes inside and outside of the membrane (Morgan & Carter, 66). When the solute concentration is not equal, the water concentration is not equal, so water will move from a higher concentration to a lower concentration in a process called osmosis.In this experiment, we cut 4 pieces of potato, weighed them, and let each soak in a different sucrose solution for about an hour and a half. Our solutions consisted of distilled water (. 0 sucrose molarity), . 1 sucrose molarity, . 3 sucrose molarity, and . 6 sucrose molarity. Our question was â€Å"which solutions are hypertonic, which are hypotonic, and which are isotonic ? †. This can all be determined through weight change. We hypothesized that distilled water would be a hypotonic solution, the . 1M would be a hypotonic solution, the . 3M would be an isotonic solution, and the . 6M would be a hypertonic solution. We thought that . M would be the isotonic solution because its molarity is in the middle. If . 3M is in fact an isotonic solution, then the water concentration is the same inside and outside of the membrane and there should be no water movement resulting in no weight change. If distilled water and . 1M are hypotonic solutions, then the concentration of water is higher on the outside, so water will move into the potato where water concentration is lower, causing a weight gain. Finally if . 6M is hypertonic, then water concentration is lower on the outside, so water will move from the inside of the potato to the solution, causing the potato to lose weight.After about an hour and a half we took the potato pieces out of the solutions the y were soaking in, patted the water off of them, and weighed them for a second time. The initial weight and final weight was recorded, which can be seen in Table 1. The potato piece that was soaking in the distilled water had a 3. 1% weight gain, and the potato piece that was soaking in . 1M sucrose had a 2. 1% weight gain. The potato piece had no weight change in the . 3M sucrose solution. And the potato piece that was soaking in . 6M sucrose solution had a 5. 7% weight loss.The weight changes can be easily seen in Graph 1. Table 1: Change in Weight |Sucrose Molarity: |0M |0. 1M |0. 3M |0. 6M | |final weight (g) |16. 4 |14. 7 |17. 7 |13. 2 | |initial weight (g) |15. 9 |14. 4 |17. 7 |14 | |weight change (g) |0. 5 |0. 3 |0 |0. 8 | |%change in weight |3. 10% |2. 0% |0% |5. 70% | Graph 1: [pic] As you can see, the results supported our hypothesis. Distilled water is a hypotonic solution, which makes sense because there is no concentration of solute in it. The water moved to the potato because the potato has more sucrose concentration, meaning a lower water concentration. The potato that was soaking in . 1M sucrose solution also gained weight as an effect of having a lower water concentration inside, but its weight gain percentage was lower because the solution had more solute than the distilled water. The potato soaking in . M sucrose solution had no change because the concentration of sucrose was the same in the potato as it was in the solution, as we predicted. The potato lost weight in the . 6M sucrose solution because the amount of sucrose inside the potato was less than the solution causing water movement from the potato to the solution. These results clearly demonstrate the process of osmosis. The water moved from a region where concentration is higher to a region where concentration is lower in every case, just like it would in a cell. Of course there is always a possibility of human error in weighing, labeling, and so on.One mistake our group made was tha t we forgot to look at the time when we put the potatoes in the solution, so we took them out a couple minute after the group next to us took theirs out, since we started at about the same time. When our results were compared to the results of other groups, they still seemed to match up. Repeating the experiment multiple times would give even clearer results. Diffusion of Starch, Salt, and Glucose Diffusion is when molecules move from an area where they are high in concentration to an area where they are low in concentration (Morgan & Carter, 66).In this experiment, we tested the ability of certain substances to pass through a semi-permeable membrane in the process of diffusion. Our semi-permeable membrane was dialysis tubing that was presoaked in water. We tied one end of the tubing with string, filled it with a solution that contained starch, salt, and glucose, and then we tied the other end. We weighed it, so we could later weigh it to discover if there was any weight change. We then placed the dialysis tubing into a beaker of distilled water.Our question was â€Å"which of these substances would be able to pass through the dialysis tubing, or semi-permeable membrane? †. After we let the tubing soak for 30 minutes, we could test for the presence of starch, salt, and glucose using 3 tests (iodine test for starch, silver nitrate test for salt, and Benedict’s reagent for glucose). Our hypothesis was that we would find the presence of all three substances in the distilled water. We thought this because we knew that molecules naturally diffuse when surrounded with an area with less concentration, but we didn’t know how much the semi-permeable membrane would interfere.Our other hypothesis was that water would enter the tubing as substances escaped it. We thought that due to osmosis, the water would move from the area of higher concentration (outside the tubing) to the area of lower concentration (inside the tubing). If our hypothesis was corr ect and all substances made it through the membrane, then we would expect to see the tubing gain weight and the original distilled water test positive for each substance, using our 3 tests, after the 30 minutes.To carry out the tests we had a positive control for each substance. The positive controls allowed us to see the results of the tests when we knew the solution contained the substances being tested for. We filled 3 test tubes with the starch/salt/glucose solution (positive controls) and 3 test tubes with the distilled water that the dialysis tubing had been soaking in. We put three drops of iodine in a positive control test tube, and three drops into a distilled water test tube to test for starch.Then we put five drops of silver nitrate into a positive control test tube, and five drops into a distilled water test tube to test for salt. Lastly, we put five drops of Benedict’s reagent into a positive control test tube, five drops into a distilled water test tube, and pla ced them both into boiling water to test for glucose. We recorded the color of each, which can be found in Table 2. We also weighed the tubing after it had soaked for 30 minutes and recorded it with the initial weight, which can be found in Graph 2. Table 2: Results of Diffusion Tests Test tube |Initial color |Final color | |starch pos control |cloudy, white |dark purple | |starch experiment |clear |yellow | |salt pos control |cloudy, white |cloudy, white | |salt experiment |clear |cloudy, white | |glucose pos control |cloudy, white |orange | |glucose experiment |clear |orange |Graph 2: [pic] If we look at Table 2 we see that we got the same color in the distilled water as we got in the positive control for the salt test and the glucose test, meaning that the distilled water tested positive for those substances. For the starch test, the positive control turned dark purple, but the distilled water turned yellow, meaning that it tested negative. If these results are correct, then star ch was unable to pass through the semi-permeable membrane. This made our hypothesis false, but not completely. We were still correct about the salt and the glucose making it throught the membrane.Our other hypothesis was correct. Graph 2 displays a weight gain showing that osmosis occured, like predicted. Just like with every experiment, there is room for human error. In this experiment, a mistake that could easily be made is with tying the ends of the tubing and making sure there is no leaks. That mistake could even go unnoticed leading to false results, because it makes it look like the substances made it through the membrane when in actuallity the substances accidently spilled into the distilled water. I think these experiments were successful in demonstrating diffusion and osmosis.The diffusion experiment clearly showed that substances move down a concentration gradient until concentration is equal everywhere, unless something is holding the substances back, like a membrane. The osmosis experiment showed that water always moves down its concentration gradient also. They both showed a search for balance, or equilibrium, on a level that is hard to see without investigation. References Morgan, J. G. and M. E. B. Carter. 2013. Energy Transfer and Development Lab Manual. Pearson Learning Solutions, Boston, MA.    |Points |Self-Assessment |Total Earned | |Introduction |2 |  2 |   | |Results |2 |  2 |   | |Figures/Tables |3 |  3 |   | |Discussion |3 |  3 |   | |Total |10 |  10 |   |

Assessing Infrastructure Failure Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Assessing Infrastructure Failure - Assignment Example This refers to the events which may be the cause of the simultaneous disturbance of various which may not connect or depend on any type (Perrow, 2007, p.  13). Each of the failed infrastructures may lead to recurring cascading failures of their dependant infrastructure. Some of the key policies to ease the infrastructure sector would be to check on corruption. Politicians and senior officials may acquire public resources to keep up their power status (Weidler, 2012, p.  45). This can lead to incomplete or low quality infrastructures which cannot withstand natural calamities. A corruption free declaration would help improve in infrastructure development. Improvement in rural access leads will play a very important role in a country’s economy which will help in infrastructure development as it will help decentralization of industries and transport of goods. The status of our infrastructure is a challenge to the Security Department. Good infrastructure boosts security’s mission in a way that security officials can counter any security threat in less time. Otherwise, poor infrastructure will pose a challenge in a way that it will take time to alert the security officers for help. A regime can plan for change in policy by conducting seminars to teach its citizen about construction of important infrastructures and be open about the total cost to avoid any type or creating chances for corruption and any other vice that may hinder

Effective Application of Financial Concepts Essay

Effective Application of Financial Concepts - Essay Example Firstly, Project Alpha has the shortest payback period. This implies that it will take the project a shorter period of time to repay its initial investment out of the net cash inflow (Kinney & Raiborn, 2009: 555). The rest of the amount will be profit. Secondly, it has a higher ARR of 29.4% compared to merely 1.6% of the Beta project, making the investment more attractive. The Alpha project is, therefore, more profitable than the Beta project. Finally, Project Alpha has a higher NPV than project Beta. Project Alpha has more cash inflows than project Beta. Payback period is the time that a project takes to recover its expenditure or the amount of time required for a project to repay its initial investment amount out of its cash inflows (Atrill & McLaney, 2011, p.364). PP provides a measure of liquidity founded on the projects expected cash flows (Weingartner 1969: 594). When using payback period, companies normally base their decisions on a maximum time limit that is predefined for projects. A project with the shortest projected time is chosen (Atrill & McLaney, 2011). This method is more realistic because it uses cash flows and not accounting profit. It is simple to calculate and is more useful in situations where there is the rapid change in technology as well as improving investment conditions. Finally, the method favours quick returns by maximising liquidity, minimising risks and helping company growth. The greatest flaw of PP is that it fails to take into consideration the returns after the payback period. It ignores cash flow timings as well as overall project profitability. The method is subjective because it fails to give definite investment signal. Even though payback period gives high emphasis on liquidity, it ignores profitability. It also ignores cash flow after the payback period making it less effective in gauging a project. When using ARR, companies normally base their decisions on a predefined minimum target ARR for projects.  Ã‚  

Rules, Rights and Justice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Rules, Rights and Justice - Essay Example Parliament is normally influenced by public opinion and social changes into making laws through Acts of parliament. There are various origins of Acts of parliament, which are caused by the variations in public and social opinions. Consequently various Acts of parliament are enacted, laws established to ensure a peaceful cohabitation of the people with its environs. Most of these will be addressed in this paper to find out the numerous ways the public can affect establishment of laws. Origin of Acts of Parliament There are different origins of Acts of parliament in England and Wales. Some of these include; national emergency crisis, manifestos of parties, the law commission, royal commission and the private members bills. The party manifestos refer to those lists of reforms promised by political parties when there is a general election. They do guarantee they would implement if they are elected into parliament. In other terms, party manifestos are simply pre-election promises. The Act s of parliament may be obtained from the pre-election promises on which the elected government made to the public (Block 2, 2012; p. 93). Nationwide emergency, crisis or fresh developments which arise during the reign of a government might force the parliament to establish an Act to deal with the crisis. For instance, the Anti-Terrorism, crime and Security Act 2001 was brought up to respond to the latest circumstances concerning the terror attack on September 11, 2001 in New York and Washington. The main objective of the 2001 Act was to cut down on financing for the terror groups, ensuring the departments and agencies in the government had authority to gather and share important information needed to deal with terror threats. In addition, the 2001 Act had the aim of expanding police jurisdiction and accessibility to appropriate forces and pass on to UK’s anti-terror authority (Block 2, 2012; p. 95). The royal commissions at times submit their report to the parliament with rec ommendations for laws which may be assumed as part of the government lawmaking process. Royal Commissions are recommended committees enacted by the State even though officially selected by the Crown. The commission conducts an investigation for any subject the government might see fit to refer to. These are normally used for political issues that are not related to any party or for matters the government deems to be perceived as addressing in a non-party political manner (Block 2, 2012; p. 101). A recommendation from the law commission is also another source of Parliamentary Acts. The main aim of creating the law commission was to establish recommendations concerning any subject of the law that the commission might feel necessary to have reforms. Thus the commission is mandated with the accountability of keeping all the regulations under the review with the objective of reform and development. The work of the commission is wide-ranging in the sense that it proposes the changes to th e law inclusive of the necessary reforms. The private member bills are also another source of the Acts of parliament. This is a situation where the individual members of parliament are able to initiate their own laws otherwise known as the Private Member’s Bill. One good example of the successful private member’s Bill which was signed into legislation is the Marriage Act 1994. This was initiated by Gyles Brandreth, Chester’

Conflict at Workplace Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Conflict at Workplace - Essay Example The occurrence of conflict can occur in an organization for a variety of reasons. One of the reasons that it can occur is interdependence. â€Å"When individuals or subunits are mutually dependent upon each other to accomplish their own goals, the potential for conflict exists† (Csuponona). Take for example a factory that produces and sells office supplies. The salesmen depend on the production department to have inventory to sell. If production does not keep up with the product demand the salespeople could enter into a conflict with the production department. A second reason that conflict can arise in an organization is due to the existence of scarce resources. Examples of scarce resources include money, time, materials or human resources (Sullivan, 2014). It is the responsibility of the manager to distribute resources in a fair manner. A third reason that conflict can manifest itself in an organization is due to power struggles. A power struggle can occur between the CEO and the board of directors, among the departmental leaders, or among the members of a workgroup. A fourth factor that can lead to conflict in the workplace is interpersonal relationships. Interpersonal conflict involves conflict between two or more individuals that disagree over a subject manner (Chand, 2014). This type of conflict is probably the most common type of conflict. Once conflict manifests itself companies must deal with it to find a resolution. An important aspect of any solution to resolve conflict is communication. â€Å"Clear, concise, accurate, and timely communication of information will help to ease both the number and severity of conflicts† (Forbes, 2012). A manager must use active listening techniques between the parties involve to decipher the root of the problem. Appealing to the common goals of the parties can help alleviate the conflict. When interdependence caused the conflict a manager can

Civil war in Africa Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Civil war in Africa - Research Paper Example Warlords and government can no longer rely on an ideological basis for civil war financing since the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Natural resources are asserts that sustain activities of both rebel movements and justice movements set to counter them (Collier & Hoeffler, 2000). Congo has diverse and abundant minerals that include gold and copper. The locals do not benefit from these minerals, as those that benefit have not done any useful investment in the country. Foreigners have persistently found local collaborators to share the massive possessions of the continent. Civil war broke as movements purported to protect the masses from the monopoly of the rulers and their overseas business allies (Nzongola-Ntalaja, 2004). Interference from outside countries, like USA and Soviet Union has also led to civil wars in the African continent; the Cold War is a significant component in aggravation of civil war in Africa. Each power militarized different African states and took part in de stabilizing their government’s political legitimacy. Governments in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Zaire depended on Cold War finance sustain their military dominance. This competition for supremacy motivated a scramble for power among different sponsored movements in different African states (Cramer, 2006; Ndikumana & Emizet, 2005). ... The powers went as far as offering arms and training to groups to provide them and edge in waging war over their rivals. A large number of African civil war protagonists received military training from countries like Russia, Israel, USA, and the Soviet Union (Kinzer, 2008) Extend of Western countries’ contribution to civil wars can be as far as assassination of some of the African leaders. There are accusation against western countries for sanctioning assassinations of African political leaders such as Eduardo Mondlane and Patrice Lumumba, Dag Hammarskjold and Samora Marcel (Akaki, 2008; De Witt, 2001). This assassination has contributed to civil wars in Africa as various political groups blame each other for the death of these leaders. The power vacuum in place leads to scramble for the vacant leadership position. High prevalence of civil wars in Africa is accredited to the ethnic variety of its people. This inference seems self-evident to many, given that. Rebel movements in Africa are most of the times ethnically oriented. Divisions in terms of ethnic orientation and the hatred that comes with it are thus among the cause of violent conflict in African continent (Elbadawi & Sambanis, 2000). Settlement former slaves in Liberia can also be to blame for of civil unrest in the country. The freed slaves prevented those from indigenous community from taking up political leadership positions; moreover, thefreed slaves thought of themselves as a progressive group. They saw indigenous Africans as heathens and savages. Liberians from America, adopted a racist thinking they experienced in the west at the time, which tagged indigenous Africans as primitive people. Such attitudes led to frequent friction among the groups, which

Implementation of the Final Solution Research Paper

Implementation of the Final Solution - Research Paper Example The uniqueness of the Holocaust lies in its motivation - in the fact that for Nazi regime the removal of the Jews was a sine qua non of the survival of mankind, a matter of global, if not cosmic, importance, and not an ordinary political matter.2 The Final Solution and the Holocaust were unique genocides of the Jewish people, unique for its magnitude and the "rationality" of their processes. To achieve its goals of Jews' elimination, the Final Solution "rationally" targeted nation's most vulnerable and vital members - women and children. On 20 January 1942, Chaired by Reinhard Heydrich, the Wannsee Conference played host to nine high-ranking officials, five senior SS chiefs, and local party bureaucrats from across the Third Reich. Serving as the chief dignitary and ranking member of the SS, Heydrich explained that "in view of the extreme importance of the subject, a consensus of opinion is reached regarding the "'Final Solution.'"3 From the historical perspective, there is an ongoing historical debate as to when the decision was made for the "Final Solution." Many historians argue that when Hitler made his "prophecy" speech of January 30th, 1939, he had already decided on the "Final Solution." Christian Gerlach has argued for a different timeframe, however, suggesting the decision was made by Hitler on December 12, 1941, when he addressed a meeting of the Nazi Party and of regional party leaders.4 In addition, Gerlach argued that Hitler had not decided on what the true "Final Solution" was until the euphoria of vict ory swept over the German leadership in the summer of 1942 in the wake of the anticipated victory over Russia. Historians on the Holocaust largely agree that the policies and strategies of the Final Solution has been prepared and practically tested some time before the year 1942. They took the form of deportations, ghettos, and euthanasia programs. Although the deportations and the ghettos can be called murderous solutions in their own right, they were not the Final Solution. The ghettos themselves were just temporary holding pens until a more "permanent solution" was developed. The development of the "permanent solution" started with the Einsatzgruppen. The Einsatzgruppen were squads composed primarily of German SS and police personnel. Under the command of the German Security Police (Sicherheitspolizei or Sipo) and Security Service (Sicherheitsdienst or SD) officers, the Einsatzgruppen had among their primary objectives the elimination of those considered to be racial or political enemies found the occupied zones, Soviet Union territories particularly. These victims included Jews, Roma (Gyp sies), and officials of the Soviet state and the Soviet Communist party. The Einsatzgruppen also murdered thousands of residents of institutions for the mentally and physically disabled. Many scholars believe that the systematic killing of Jews in the occupied Soviet Union by Einsatzgruppen and Order Police (Ordnungspolizei) battalions was the first step of the "Final Solution," the Nazi program to murder all European Jews. However, some scholars such as Dina Port contend that the Final

Heath and Well Being Campaign Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Heath and Well Being Campaign - Case Study Example It also ensures that the environment is kept clean by repairing faulty gargets and thus preventing pollution (Siegrist & Marmot 2004). It is also determined to provide leisure facilities like movies and video games to provide entertainment to the society at large. Compuera mostly targets the young people between the ages of 16-35 and hence by providing leisure facilities, it helps the young people to stay away form dugs and other vices like crime. The following are the tasks; selling of all home appliances, buying of second hand appliances, repair and replacement of worn out parts in equipments, installation and service of electronic entertainment equipments like receivers, radios, television stereos and video cassette recorders. Testing and calibrating and locating electronic faults in equipments through the use of instruments like meters, tuning and adjusting equipment and instruments to get maximum end results and also reading and interpreting electronic circuit diagrams, drawings and service manuals to customers. The organisation also gives instructions to customers on how to use gargets at home safely. The organisation also offers training to individuals who are interested in learning about home appliances repair and maintenance (Acheson 1998). The organisation upholds the following values; support relationships, independence, achievements, initiative, self control, integrity and persistence to mention just but a few. The organisation structure is made up of:- Managing director; He is the head of the company. He makes the key decisions concerning the organisation. He represents the company in all meetings (Waddell & Burton 2006). Human Resource Manager: He is in charge of recruiting, training, managing, dismissing and firing employees in the organisation. He is in charge in the welfare of the employees. Assistant manager: He helps the managing director in making crucial decisions concerning the organisation. Accounts manger: They are in charge of all the financial transactions in the organisation. Technicians; These makes the largest proportion of the organisation. They are involved in repairing, replacement and all the field work. They do all the manual work in the organisation. Other staffs include cleaners, cooks, receptionist and security guards; all of whom are important for the organisation to run smoothly and to have maximum productivity. In the past years, the company has had many cases of staff being sick and feeling unwell. As a result we have decided to come up with a campaign to promote the health and wellbeing of workers. The aim of this report is to come up with campaign strategy to promote 'Heath and Wellbeing of Compuera staff'. Promotion of the wellbeing and health of staff yields a great deal in an organisation in terms of job satisfaction, improved performance and productivity, increased commitment and reduced staff commitment. Every organisation gains from having healthy workers. The pie chart below on figure 1 represents the percentage of workers who were absent and the reasons behind it in the last four months. It is clear and evident that a big percentage of wor

Dietary Supplements Report Essay Example for Free

Dietary Supplements Report Essay Dietary supplements are products intended for ingestion as supplements to the diet. Dietary supplements can have vitamins, herbs, enzymes, extracts, plant substances, amino acids, botanicals, and concentrates. Supplements are beneficial to the body because they can enhance the nutrients in foods, aid in weight loss, provide energy, cure illnesses, optimize health, and protect against diseases. If a person does not consume enough nutrients because of a disease or eating habits dietary supplements are extremely beneficial. There are certain groups that benefit most from dietary supplements; pregnant women, vegetarians, dieters, and the elderly. An increase of folic acid and iron is needed to reduce the risk of defects and prevent anemia. Vegetarians should take vitamin B12 because they do not eat animal foods which contain more vitamin B12 than any other food source. If a person eats less than 1200 calories when on a diet, they will not get the amount of nutrients needed. If dieters take a multi-vitamin they will meet the daily recommendations for nutrients. Anyone over the age of 50 should take calcium, Vitamin D, and B12 to maintain a healthy life. Calcium and vitamin D will help keep the bones strong, lower blood pressure, and prevent diseases like osteoporosis and multiple sclerosis. Vitamin B12 will promote heart health and fight fatigue. There are many risks when taking dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are not regulated or tested by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for side effects before they are available to consumers (â€Å"The skinny on dietary supplements,† 2008). Dietary supplements are also harmful because they contain chemicals that can be harmful. Some supplements contain non-essential hormones and enzymes. Dietary supplements may cause medications, over-the-counter or prescribed, to work differently or not at all. When taking any supplement it is important to read the label and ask a physician before taking the supplement to reduce chances of toxicity. Many people think dietary supplements provide all the nutrients needed to support a healthy diet; they are only part of a ealthy diet (Grosvenor, 2006). As stated earlier, the government does not regulate dietary supplements as they do other foods and drugs (U. S. Food and Drug Administration: Dietary Supplements, 2013). In 1994 the government created the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA). The act states manufacturers are responsible for ensuring the product is safe before it is put on the market. If the product is unsafe after it is on the market the FDA is respon sible for taking action to correct the issue. The FDA is responsible for providing product information and literature. It is the manufacturer’s responsibility to ensure all ingredients are listed on the labels of the product and the information is true. The manufacturer has to submit reports for any supplement that has any type of negative reaction. The FDA implemented a Dietary Supplement Current Good Manufacturing Practice (CGMPs) that all personnel in the company must follow to ensure quality control. Supplements are needed by people with life-threatening diseases like kidney failure. People that have kidney failure, depending on the type of dialysis they use, peritoneal or hemodialysis. Peritoneal dialysis uses osmosis and diffusion through the peritoneal cavity to remove waste and fluid; this process causes a lack of potassium, magnesium, and phosphorus. Hemodialysis uses an artificial kidney to remove wastes and fluids from the blood; this process causes a lack of phosphorus, iron, and epogen. The common bond between both types of dialysis is the lack of phosphorus. Phosphorus supplements are used to strengthen the bones of dialysis patients, prevent renal bone disease, and keep the heart healthy. The dose varies from patient to patient, depending on the food intake. If the patient does not take the prescribed dose they experience many different effects. If too much of the phosphorus supplement is ingested, itching will occur. If not enough phosphorus is ingested, weakness will occur and bones will begin to get brittle causing them to break.

Investigating Glue Essay Example for Free

Investigating Glue Essay Title To recycle the bad protein food by reproducing glue Aim Have you even thrown some food because it becomes bad? Do you think it really waste money? Do you want to make them become useful again? If you do, our experiment will show you how to do and everything about it. Apparatus: Heater, measuring cylinder à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2(250ml50ml), pH paper,beakerà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½2(300ml500ml),glass rod, spoon Chemical: skim milk, vinegar Abstract The sticking properties of different proteins in daily food are being investigated in our experiment. Casein in dairy products and textured soy protein (TSP) in soybean products are abstracted out by precipitation in acid. The samples are then neutralized by carbonate and undergo a series of stress tests to compare the strength of our reproduced protein glues with commercial products. The basic principle of the sticking properties of protein glues is the ionic attractions and the Van der Walls attractive force generated by the protein molecules. Protein molecules are highly folded, resulting in a great contact surface area and exposure of the hydrophobic bonds. When two surfaces of substances like wood or paper are held together by protein, linkages are formed in between the molecules, and the two surfaces are stick together and are difficult to separate. We expect the result the casein in milk and textured soy protein in soybean milk have comparable sticking strength as starch contained in commercial glue. The significant advantage of the production of our protein glues is that proteins in expired food can be recycled and reused to make the useful glue. The glue produced is also not toxic or harmful to the environment. Introduction 1)The history of glue The earliest evidence of use of glue can still be observed in the cave paintings made by Neanderthal ancestors in Lascaux, France. These early artists wanted their work to last and mixed glue with the paint they used to help the colors resist the moisture of the cave walls. Egyptian artifacts unearthed in their tombs show many uses of glues; perhaps the most striking are the veneers and inlays in wood furniture, which was made using glue as early as 3,000 B.C. The Egyptians also used glue to produce papyrus. Greek and Roman artists used glues extensively; mosaic floors and tiled walls and baths are still intact after thousands of years. Around 1750, the first glue or adhesive patent was issued in Britain. The glue was made from fish. Patents were then rapidly issued for adhesives using natural rubber, animal bones, fish, starch, milk protein or casein. As we can see from ancient and medieval records, fish glue was both a common and important adhesive for many special applications; adapted by artists, it was used from the time of ancient Egypt to twentieth-century France, in painting media, coatings and grounds, in the gilding of illuminated manuscripts, and in pastel fixatives. 2)Theory of milk glue Casein is the principal protein found in cow milk (about 3%) from which it has been extracted commercially for most of the 20th century. It is responsible for the white, opaque appearance of milk in which it is combined with calcium and phosphorus as clusters of casein molecules, called micelles. The major uses of casein until the 1960s were in technical, non-food applications such as adhesives for wood, in paper coating, leather finishing and in synthetic fibers, as well as plastics for buttons, buckles etc. The first step in making acid-precipitated casein is acidification. Mineral acids or organic acids can add to the skim milk; or the milk is allowed to sour, in which case lactic acid, produced by fermentation of lactose, is the effective precipitant. The precipitated curd is then drained, washed, press to remove water, milled, drill, and ground. Solutions of casein in alkalis (with enough of the protein to give a suitable viscosity) can be used as glue. Such glue compares favorably in strength with animal glue on drying the protein forms numerous hydrogen bonds with the cellulose in paper and with itself, so it can stick woods together, but it is not water-resistant. Resistance to water can be imparted to casein glue, however, by modifying the simple formula of casein in alkali; these improved casein glues are widely useful in industry. Prepared casein glues are sold in the form of dry mixtures, which need only the addition of water before use. They are commonly composed of casein, lime, and a number of alkaline salts. Various chemicals have been used to improve the resistance to water, and many colloidal materials with adhesive properties can be mixed with casein to modify the properties of the resulting glues. It has thus been possible to adapt casein glues to a variety of specialized applications. These glues are used in the woodworking industry, in gluing paper, and in many other fields. Procedure à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Preparation of milk glue 1) 250cm3 of milk and 50cm3 of vinegar (about 5% ethanoic acid) were added into a beaker. 2) The mixture was heated slowly and stirred continuously until curds were observed. (Caution: Heater is very hot, temperature of mixture should not be more than 60à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) 3) Curds were allowed to settle to the bottom for about 10 minutes. 4) The heated mixture was filtered. 5) The curds were squeezed to remove liquid. 6) The curds were washed with little volume of water and squeezed again. 7) The curds were stirred with solid sodium hydrogencarbonate (NaHCO3) gradually and monitored pH by pH paper until pH became slightly alkali. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½Testing of adhere strength of glue 1) The glues were used to stick two plywood together, a the plywood at downside , with contact surface of 20 cm2 2) Two samples were made for each glue and one sample of starch glue was made as control. 3) The stack plywood was pressed by 0.8kg mass and allowed to dry at dry place for 2 days . 4) The plywood was set above the ground. 5) 0.5 kg Test mass was added gently each time until the masses drop. 6) The maximum mass of the glues that can afforded were recorded. 7) The plywood was cut into 4, which contact surface was decreased 4 times, and the above tests were repeated. Reference 1)http://classes.ansci.illinois.edu/ansc438/milkcompsynth/milkcomp_protein.html 2)http://science-in-farming.library4farming.org/Crops-Grains-Protein/PROTEINS-ARE-BASIC/Milk-Proteins.html

Principles of Managers and Management

Principles of Managers and Management We must understand who is manager before further our study into the aspects of management. Managers have long been responsible for planning, organizing, leading and controlling in such a way as to ensure that the organizations objectives are achieved efficiently. A major change is occurring in many organizations, however Management is increasingly becoming a responsibility of every individual in the organization, not just those who are formally designated as managers. In many organization, all members are managing themselves more than was generally in the past. They are performing some of the functions of management, such as planning, not simply the task assigned to them as part of the organizing process. 1.1.2 Who are managers? Manager can be defined as, A manager is an individual who is directly responsible for ensuring that tasks are performed by people or employees in an organisation. or A manager is a person tasked with overseeing one or more employees or departments to ensure these employees or departments carry out assigned duties as required Practically, managemer is divided into three levels, 1) Senior / Top managemer 2) Middle manager and 3) First level / Lower manager. Top managers, who are responsible for making ornagization decision and establishing the plan and goals that affect the entire organisations. These individuals typically have titles such as Executive Vice President, Vice President, President, Chief Operation Officer (COO) or Chief Executive Officer (CEO). Senior or Top manager commonly consists of a board of directors or shareholders who own the company and are responsible for making key decisions that affect the company. Middle managers include all levels of management between the first level manager and top level of the organisation. These managers manage the work of first-line managers and may have titles such as regional managers, project leader, plant managers or division managers. First-line managers, the lowest level of management, manage the work of nonmanagerial employees who typically are involved with producing the organizations products or servicing the organizations customer. There are three key elements to get to know about the manager. The fuctions performed by managers in the management environment, roles and the skills. This three key elements will be discussed later. 1.1.3 What is management? Self check : In your opinion, what is the definition of management? Management can be defined as follows: Management is defined as the process of overseeing and coordinating resources efficiently and effectively in line with the goals of the organisation. The attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, leading and controlling organizational resources In the simplest of terms, management is all about getting things done. However, it is the way and the process of how one achieves ones target or goals and it is in this respect that management is considered an art and a science as well. Peter Drucker (1993) defined management as Supplying knowledge to find out how existing knowledge can best be applied to produce results is, in effect, what we mean by management. But knowledge is now also being applied systematically and purposefully to determine what new knowledge is needed, whether it is feasible, and what has to be done to make knowledge effective. It is being applied, in other words, to systematic innovation. (Drucker, 1993) From all the above definitions, it is clear that management is a creative as well as a systematic flow of knowledge that can be applied to produce results by using human as well as other resources in an effective way. Management has not been limited to managing human resource; management today has been segregated into various branches like financial management, strategic management, operations management, time management, crisis management, marketing management etc. Each of these is a separate branch that is being handled by managers who specialize in these fields. Today the importance of management from an organizations point of view has increased multifold. It is only through effective management that companies are developing and executing their businesss policies and strategies to maximize their profits and provide with the best of products and services. Management today combines creative, business, organizational, analytical and other skills to produce effective goal-oriented results! Some of the key functions in management includes learning to delegate, planning and organizing, communicating clearly, controlling situations, motivating employees, adapting to change, constantly innovating and thinking of new ideas, building a good team and delivering results which are not just figure -bound but results that also focus on overall growth and development. Management focuses on the entire organization from both a short and a long-term perspective. Management is the managerial process of forming a strategic vision, setting objectives, crafting a strategy and then implementing and executing the strategy. Management goes beyond the organizations internal operations to include the industry and the general environment. The key emphasis is on issues related to environmental scanning and industry analysis, appraisal of current and future competitors, assessment of core competencies, strategic control and the effective allocation of organizational resources. Nevertheless, based on definition number 2, effectiveness is the attainment of goals that enables the realisation of the objectives of an organisation or, briefly, as doing the right thing whereas efficiency is performing a job using minimum effort, cost and wastage or simply put as doing things right. The end result of an efficient and effective management is the success of an organisation. A person can be described as efficient but not effective or effective but not efficient in managing a specific task. Both elements are not interdependent. Lets say a factory worker finds a shortcut to doing a task with lower cost but by doing so, he deviates from the ethical objectives of the organisation. For example, he disposes of production waste by dumping it into the river. But one of the organisations ethical objectives is to preserve local harmony. So, the factory worker, through his action, deviated from the objective although he was efficient. In short, he was efficient but not effective. In contrast, an employee is considered effective but not efficient if he uses an old method to resolve a management issue even if it could have been resolved efficiently without deviating from the objectives of the organisation. For example, in delivering information, the employee sends a letter via post instead of e-mail. Although it does not affect or clash with the organisations objectives, the employee has wasted a part of the resources allocated to him. Both efficiency and effectiveness cannot be excluded from the definition of management as these are essential elements in defining management. 1.1.4 What is organizations? When two or more people get together and agree to coordinate their activities in order to achieve their common goals, an organization has been born. There is really no doubt about the present meaning of organization. Its purpose is to create an arrangement of positions and responsibilities through and by means of which an enterprise can carry out its work. An academic textbook definition of organization can be formulated as follows: a. the responsibilities by means of which the activities of the enterprise are dispersed among the (managerial, supervisory, and specialist) personnel employed in its service; and b. the formal interrelations established among the personnel by virtue of such responsibilities. It must be emphasized that an organization should not be seen as rigid as the term framework implies. In reality, almost all organization structures must be occasionally reviewed due to various changes in the external environment of the organization in question. Moreover, internal changes also occur oftentimes due to the development of various informal relationships. However, in order to develop a so-called science of organizations a conceptual framework of theory and principle must first be developed. It is true to state that principles of management have existed for a long time. These principles were not recorded as scientific truths, but simply applied as practical means to accompany the process of modernization. As societies became more complex, an acceptable framework to encompass the unscientific principles of management was needed. Since the nineteenth century, many writers and researchers have contributed a great deal to existing principles and accepted practices. It is in the formulation of principles that the science of management can be developed. A management principle distils and organizes knowledge that has been built up through experience and analysis. It is highly unlikely that management will ever become an exact science with many laws governing it because personal judgment will always be needed to supplement available knowledge. Unlike principles in the natural sciences, management principles are not fundamental truths, they are only conditional statements which largely depends on many other variables. However, it is still necessary to continue the process of understanding and applying accepted principles to improve the quality of day-to-day management practice. For this reason management will always be an art. 1.2 Who are managers and what they do? There are three key elements to get to know about the manager. Management Fuctions Management Roles Management Skills. 1.2.1 Management Functions Today in most management book, basic management functions The manager is involved in various basic activities. These activities are usually grouped in a concept categorised as management functions. These functions are illustrated as follows. Management functions Planning, Organising, Leading Controlling Referring to the table below, all four management functions elorated. Table 1.1: Management Functions Management Functions Descriptions Planning Defining objectives to be achieved for a given period and what needs to be done to achieve the objectives. All management levels in an organisation need to be involved in planning. Managers need to develop objectives in line with the overall strategies of the organisation. Organising Determining what tasks are to be done; who will implement and co-ordinate them; how the tasks are to be grouped; who reports to whom; and where decisions are to be made. The manager needs to logically and effectively organise the information, resources and workflow of the organisation so that he is able to react positively towards changes in the business environment. Leading This involves motivating subordinates; selecting the most effective communication channels; resolving conflicts; and directing as well as guiding the actions of others with the intention of achieving all objectives. The effective leader of today has to be visionary in foreseeing the future, sharing the vision and encouraging employees in realising the vision. Controlling The measuring of performance in all pre-determined objectives, determining reasons for deviation and taking appropriate actions, where necessary. Controlling is an important function in the management process as it provides ways to ensure that the organisation moves towards achieving its objectives. 1.2.2 MANAGEMENT ROLES Manager can identified by the role they play in the organisations. An expert in management, Prof Henry Mintzberg, did a research by observing what managers did during their work hours. His research conclude that managers not only have 4 elements as discussed in Management Functions, but they have to play another roles as detailed below (Lewis, P.S. et al; 2001). Role as a Figurehead A manager must carry out ceremonial duties. For example, the vice-chancellor of a university must be involved in the opening ceremony of programmes conducted at the university. The head of a department is responsible for entertaining his clients. Role as a Leader A manager indirectly functions as a leader. Each manager must function as a leader in motivating and encouraging his subordinates. The manager steers members of his unit to continuously work effectively to achieve the goals of the unit and organisation besides resolving problems and issues. Role as a Liaison Officer A manager conveys relevant information gathered to individuals outside his unit or to other relevant parties outside his organisation. The manager will allocate time for interacting with people outside his organisation. Thus, a manager acts as a channel for communications between his department and those within as well as those outside his organisation. For example, a human resource manager may liaise with the finance manager to check on funds allocated for the recruitment of new employees by the organisation before embarking on a recruitment drive. Role as a Spokesperson The manager of an organisation usually acts as its spokesperson. For example, a supervisor will usually ensure that the operations manager is furnished with the latest information on the running of his production plant. Similarly, the general manager of a factory will lobby local authorities for a new tender. Role as a Negotiator No organisation is without problems. A manager is compelled to find a solution for each of its problems regardless of complexities. The manager needs to spend a lot of time in discussions as he plays the role of a negotiator. For example, a manager will negotiate with the trade union chief to reach an amicable agreement on salaries. Role as an Initiator Two management experts, Sumantra Ghoshal and Christopher Bartlett (Dessler, G; 2001), highlighted the additional role of a manager as an initiator of corporate actions and transformations. Moreover, an excellent manager is one who cultivates three processes that steer his employees towards achieving initiatives for change. These processes are as follows: Entrepreneurship Process The manager will try to improve his units performance and when he gets a good idea, he will launch a programme to realise the idea. Researches carried out in Japan, the United States and Europe showed that a successful manager is one who focuses a lot of time and effort on steering his employees towards thinking like an entrepreneur. To meet this objective, the manager needs to empower, support and provide incentives for employees to attain self-direction. Capability Development Process In a technology-centred world, conglomerates need to fully utilise their advantage as a large establishment not only in matters of economies of scale but also in the aspects of widening and deepening the knowledge and abilities of its employees. A manager who succeeds will focus on creating a conducive environment that encourages employees to shoulder additional responsibilities. He will also focus on preparing the necessary training and guidance to build their self-confidence. The successful manager will allow employees room for making mistakes without the fear of being penalised while undergoing training and encourage them to learn from their mistakes. Reformation Process A successful manager will identify situations that might pose challenges to the strategies of the organisation and assumptions made. In other words, the manager is capable of cultivating a querying disposition such as why something is done in a certain way and whether there are alternative ways of doing it. 1.2.3 MANAGEMENT SKILLS SELF-CHECK 1.2 When an organisation shortlists employees for the position of a manager, it will usually select individuals with technical, interpersonal and conceptual skills. Therefore, the third approach to understanding the tasks of managers is to analyse the skills required to carry out the tasks. Figure 1.2 shows three types of essential skills required at each level of management. The arrow pointing upwards shows the type of skills that are needed by top-level management. The arrow pointing downwards shows the type of skills that are needed by lower-level management or line managers. Figure 1.2: Skills required of a manager (a) Conceptual Skills Conceptual skills refer to the ability to view the organisation as a whole, and the impact the different sections have on the organisation, as a whole and on each other. It also involves observing how an organisation adapts to or is affected by external environmental factors such as society, economic pressure, customers and competition. An efficient manager should be able to identify, understand and solve the various problems and critical perspectives. The need for conceptual skills becomes increasingly crucial when a manager climbs higher in the management hierarchy. (b) Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal skill is the ability to work well with other people. Managers with good interpersonal skills work more effectively in a group, encouraging other employees to input their ideas and comments as well as being receptive to the needs and views of others. The manager will also, indirectly, become a good listener and speaker. Interpersonal skills are crucial, regardless of the level of management. However, a low-level manager will be more occupied in solving technical problems while a manager at the middle and higher levels will be mainly occupied with dealing directly with others. (c) Technical Skills Technical skills are the ability to apply procedures, techniques and specialised knowledge required in a certain task. For a shoe factory supervisor, the technical skills required will include the steps involved in shoe manufacturing from the beginning until the final product is ready. A housing developers technical skills will include ways to complete the development of a housing estate. Technical skills are crucial for low-level managers as they supervise employees in manufacturing or service sectors. The manager needs to have technical knowledge and the skills to train new employees and assist employees in solving problems. Skills and technical knowledge are required to solve operational problems that cannot be handled by employees. Nevertheless, the higher the position of a manager in a hierarchy, the fewer the technical skills required. SELF-CHECK 1.3 Self check Based on what you have learned, identify the differences between the three levels and tabulate your answers. Exercise Explain each of the management functions that you have learned about. 1.3 HISTORY OF MANAGEMENT Scientific Management Theory (1890-1940) At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large and industrialized. Often they included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured a variety of products. The United States highly prized scientific and technical matters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and results. Management tended to be the same. Frederick Taylor developed the :scientific management theory which espoused this careful specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks were standardized as much as possible. Workers were rewarded and punished. This approach appeared to work well for organizations with assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities. Bureaucratic Management Theory (1930-1950) Max Weber embellished the scientific management theory with his bureaucratic theory. Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for all routinized tasks. Human Relations Movement (1930-today) Eventually, unions and government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects of these theories. More attention was given to individuals and their unique capabilities in the organization. A major belief included that the organization would prosper if its workers prospered as well. Human Resource departments were added to organizations. The behavioral sciences played a strong role in helping to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of the organization and its workers could be better aligned. Various new theories were spawned, many based on the behavioral sciences (some had name like theory X, Y and Z). General Administrative Theories Administrative theory, Classical administrative theory An early form of organization theory, pioneered mainly by Henri Fayol (1841-1925), which was concerned principally with achieving the most rational organization for co-ordinating the various tasks specified within a complex division of labour (see his Administration industrielle et gà ©nà ©rale, 1916) . The translation of this book into English as General and Industrial Management (1949) implies that Fayol was concerned mainly with business management, although he himself makes it clear that his ideas about management were intended to apply to all formal organizations, including political and religious undertakings. Expressing the French administration as management has also led to the alternative designation of this approach as the classical school of scientific management. More recent exponents include Lyndall Urwick and Peter F. Drucker. Fayol, who is acknowledged to be the earliest advocate of a theoretical analysis of managerial activities, identified the key functions of management as being those of forecasting and planning. The most rational and efficient organizations were, in his view, those which implemented a plan that facilitated unity, continuity, flexibility, precision, command and control. Universal principles of administration were then distilled from these objectives. These include the key elements of the scalar chain (authority and responsibility flowing in an unbroken line from the chief executive to the shop floor); unity of command (each person has only one supervisor with whom he or she communicates); a pyramid of prescribed control (first-line supervisors have a limited number of functions and subordinates, with second-line supervisors controlling a prescribed number of first-line supervisors, and so on up to the chief executive); unity of direction (people engaged in similar activities must pursu e a common objective in line with the overall plan); specialization of tasks (allowing individuals to build up a specific expertise and so be more productive); and, finally, subordination of individual interests to the general interest of the organization. This list is not exhaustive, but illustrates the key proposition of administrative theory, which is that a functionally specific and hierarchical structure offers the most efficient means of securing organizational objectives (see M. B. Brodie , Fayol on Administration, 1967) Classical administrative theory, like its near-contemporary the scientific management approach, rests on the premisses that organizations are unproblematically rational and (effectively) closed systems. In other words, organizations are assumed to have unambiguous and unitary objectives, which the individuals within them pursue routinely, by obeying the rules and fulfilling their role expectations, according to the prescribed blueprint and structure. Moreover, in the attempt to maximize efficiency, it is only variables within that structure that need to be considered and manipulated. The interaction of the organization with its environment, together with the various factors which are external to the organization but nevertheless have consequences for its internal functioning, are systematically ignored. Clearly, both perspectives take a rather deterministic view of social action, since each assumes that individuals will maximize organizational efficiency, independently of their own w elfare, and with no thought for the relationship between the collective goal and their own particular purposes. The Human Relations Movement in organizational analysis, an otherwise diverse group of writers and approaches, is united by its opposition to precisely this assumption. Despite such criticisms, the classical theory of administration has exerted considerable influence on the fields of business studies and public administration, and it still provides the basic concepts which many managers use in clarifying their objectives. Question why they need evolution in the first place? What change the theory, From the start of the 19th century until the 20th century, managers and scholars formed a theoretical framework to explain what they believe to be good practices of management. Their efforts led to five different classes of perspectives on management classical, behavioural, quantitative, systems and contemporary. Each perspective is based on different assumptions towards the objectives of the organisation and human behaviour. Figure 1.3 will help you to understand the chronological sequence of the perspectives. You might be wondering why it is important and necessary to study the historical development or the evolution of management thought. Studying history enables us to learn from mistakes made in the past so as to avoid making them in the future. History also enables us to study past successes that can be emulated accordingly in the future. Most importantly, we must understand the reasons behind such occurrences in order to improve in the future. 1.4.1 Classical Perspective This perspective existed in the 19th century and early 20th century. It focused on the rational and scientific approaches to the study of management and on finding ways to mould an organisation to become more efficient. There are three sub-classes in this perspective, the scientific management, bureaucracy management and administrative management. (a) Scientific Management This approach existed at a time when productivity was deemed critical by businessmen. Businesses were growing rapidly but businessmen were facing a critical shortage of workers. Hence, management was continuously finding ways to improve the performance of its employees. The focus on improving employees efficiency is known as the scientific management approach. A number of researchers contributed towards the findings of scientific management, among them Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lilian Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. Frederick Taylor (1856-1915), a mechanical engineer, was of the opinion that problems arose mainly due to bad management practices and, to a lesser degree, problems with employees. He stressed that management itself needed to transform and that the transformation method could only be established through scientific research. He suggested that decisions based on rules of thumb be substituted with established procedures, after analysing each situation. Taylors theory, which stated that the productivity of the labour force could be improved through scientifically-based management practices, earned him the title Father of Scientific Management. To improve the work performance of employees, Taylor conducted a research entitled Time and Motions Study. From the research findings, Taylor identified five principles of management that could boost production efficiency. The five principles were: (i) Using the scientific approach to determine best practices and not relying on rules of thumb; (ii) Selecting suitable employees to perform a particular task. Suitability covers mental and physical aspects; (iii) Training and developing an employee so that he is able to perform a given task according to established procedures; (iv) Giving monetary incentives to ensure that employees perform a task accordingly; and (v) Reassigning all responsibilities pertaining to planning and organising to the manager. Taylor was not alone in this research. Henry Gantt (1861-1919), a friend of Taylor, focused on the control system in the scheduling of production. The Gantt Chart is still used today in planning the schedule of a project and has also been adapted in computerised-scheduling applications. The husband and wife team of Frank (1868-1924) and Lillian Gilbreth (1878-1972), also strived to further expand the scientific management approach. Lillian was a pioneer in the field of industrial psychology and contributed greatly to human resource management. She believed that if scientific management was widely utilised, the abilities of each employee would grow considerably. (b) Bureaucratic Management Bureaucratic management is an approach to management that is based on guidelines, hierarchy, clear division of labour as well as rules and procedures. Max Weber (1864-1920), a German social theorist, introduced many bureaucratic concepts. Among the components of bureaucracy are: (i) Authority and clearly defined responsibilities; (ii) Positions in an organisation that are structured according to hierarchy; (iii) Promotions based on qualifications; (iv) Records of all administrative actions and decisions to ensure continuity of organisational rules; (v) Separation of ownership and management; and (vi) Guidelines implemented to all employees without bias. The bureaucratic approach strives to increase efficiency and ensure continuity of overall operations of the organisation. This approach differs from scientific management, which only focuses on the employee as an individual. Nevertheless, this principle, used to improve efficiency, also may cause inefficiency. Rigid guidelines create red tape and slow down the decision-making process, resulting in the inability to change swiftly to adapt to the needs of the environment and, at times, create conflicts in performing a task professionally. (c) Administrative Management The administrative management principle focuses on the organisation as a whole. Among the contributors to this approach are Henri Fayol, Mary Parker Follett and Chester I. Barnard. Henri Fayol (1841-1925), a Frenchman, is considered the pioneer of administrative theory as he introduced the organisational principles and administrative functions. His most relevant contribution was presenting the definition and roles of an administrator. Fayol defined administration and management as planning, organising, directing, coordinating and controlling. He identified 14 principles of management: Division of labour: This is a concept on specialisation of work, based on the assumptions that: No one can do all the work; Each job requires different skills; and Repetition of work will increase efficiency. Authority: The right to give directions and power to be complied with. Here, authority at the office has to be differentiated from personal authority. Discipline: Based on respect and conformity. Unity of command: An employee should receive instructions from one superior only. Unity of direction: One superior and one direction for a particular activity with the same objective. Subordination of individual interests to the general interests: Personal interest should not exceed or precede over common interest. Remuneration: Salary payment based on various factors. Centralisation: The centralisation of work depends on th